Relative clauses: defining/ non defining

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeat certain words



Defining relative clauses:

Non defining relative clauses:

That functions

 




The word that is widely used in English for a variety of functions.  We'll look briefly at eight uses of that in this section.  Because it's used so many ways, the word can be a real challenge for us as students








1. That as a Determiner
That is paired with this (and these and those) to combine with nouns: this book, that book, this music, that music, these books, those books.
This function is variously labeled in grammar books: demonstrative, demonstrative adjective, and determiner. Students have to learn to combine this/that with singular and noncount nouns and these/those with plural nouns.  The more difficult task for us is to help students learn the meaning of these forms.  Generally, this/these are used to point out items or topics "close" to the speaker/writer while that/those are somehow "distant" from the speaker/writer.
This use as a determiner has a related use as a freestanding pronoun.

2. That as a Pronoun That can be used as a freestanding pronoun (rather than a determiner) in phrases such as these quoted from the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English:
 

That's how they were doing it. That's what I thought. That's that's true that.  That's what they do.

The Longman Grammar shows that on the whole in English the demonstrative pronouns are rare compared to the personal pronouns.  Additionally, demonstratives are more common in conversation than in writing. 
Also they show that that is much more common than the other 3 demonstrative pronouns! Somehow we find that more useful than the other demonstratives -- perhaps because of using set phrases like that's as in the example sentences. 
It's this kind of information that corpus linguistics can provide that is just wonderfully useful for language teachers.  The traditional approach shows that English has a system with 4 words in it--and those words paired into sets based on number (on singular vs. plural nouns).  But, in actual use, the system doesn't quite work as in the traditional presentation.  Yes, the little closed system does involve four words; yes, the system involves meanings that contrast this/these with that/those; but the four words in the system are not used in equal amounts and are not of equal value to our ESL/EFL students.

3. That as an Adverb That can be used to intensify the meaning of an adjective--it's that hot, he's that tired, I'm that old, and so forth. These uses are found primarily in conversation.

4. That as a Relative Pronoun That is also used as a relative pronoun: I bought the book that is required for this course.  The Longman Grammar found that that as a relative pronoun is more common in academic writing and newspaper writing than in conversation.  Indeed, conversation tends to have more of those sentences where the relative pronoun is dropped: I bought the book required for this course. 

5. That in Noun Clauses Look at the sentences in the box.  In each, the verb is followed by that plus a clause.  The that + clause combination is called a noun clause because it functions like a noun as the direct object of the verb.  Grammar books also discuss the structure as a "verb complement"--because the that + clause "completes" the meaning and structure of the verb.  This use is very common in academic writing--notice the verbs that are used: claim that, figured that, find that, conclude that, know that, suspect that.  These and other verbs like them are used to report knowledge--a very common function in academic writing.  However, we use these clauses often in conversation, too, with verbs like think, know, and others that show our own ideas and knowledge.  In conversation, there's a tendency to drop the that, however, so these noun clauses are often in the form: I think he's a really nice guy.
 

Examples of Noun Clauses from a Sociology Textbook 1. Other reports of feral children have claimed that on discovery, these children acted like wild animals. 2. These researchers figured that since Jack and Oskar had the same genes, whatever differences they showed would have to be due to the environment - to their different social experiences.  3. The researchers also found that Oskar and Jack both like sweet liqueur and spicy foods, excelled at sports as children but had difficulty with math, and have the same rate of speech.  4. It seems fair to conclude that the limits of certain physical and mental abilities are established by heredity (such as ability at sports and mathematics), while such basic orientations to life as attitudes are the result of the environment.  5. Although everyone "knew" that the cause of mental retardation was biological ("They're just born that way"), two psychologists who consulted in this Iowa orphanage, H. M. Skeels and H. B. Dye (1939), began to suspect that the absence of stimulating social interaction was the basic problem, not some biological incapacity on the part of the children.

6. That in Appositive Clauses Appositive clauses look a lot like relative clauses, but they are fundamentally different in structure.  Remember that a relative clause is a changed sentence: a relative pronoun is subsituted for some noun phrase in the source sentence and thus the relative pronoun has a dual role--to connect the clause to a noun but also to be a structural part of the clause itself.  Look at this example: that is the subject of the relative clause:  How do I know that?  Well, figure out the sentence that is the source for the relative clause. 

I bought the book that is required for this course. This is the sentence that is changed to make the relative clause: The book is required for this course.  To make the relative clause, that is put into the subject position: that is required for this course.
So, that in a relative clause is not just a connecting word; it must be subject or object.  And that (like all relative pronouns) must have some meaning that is understandable in its sentence.  In our example, that = the book.
An appositive is a phrase that names (or labels) a noun as in these examples with the appositive in bold type.  Appositives are "postmodifiers" of nouns; they mean the same thing as the noun they are attached to.  Sometimes an appositive is given without commas, sometimes with commas. 
 

Appositives the word appositive the book Gone with the Wind the writer Flannery O'Connor Coach Steve Spurrier The teacher of my sound system course,  John Murphy, is from New Jersey.

An appositive clause is a subordinate clause that has the same kind of function with a noun as other types of appositives.  It names or labels or specifies the noun.
In contrast to a relative clause, an appositive clause involves a simple connection: that connects a clause without being a part of the subordinate clause.

My belief that English grammar is fascinating lies behind my career. What sentences are combined? 

1.  My belief lies behind my career.
2.  English grammar is fascinating. That combines the two, but it isn't a part of the second clause.  These appositive clauses are related to similar noun clauses:  I believe that English grammar is fascinating = my belief that English grammar is fascinating.... The process of changing verbs into nouns is called nominalization.
Appositive clauses involve nouns like belief, thought, knowledge, conclusion; these words are the noun forms of related verbs believe, think, know, conclude that often take noun clauses as their objects.
Here are some examples from the sociology textbook that I'm using for examples for this course.  Try analyzing these examples.  Can you tell that they are not relative clauses? 
 
 

Two Appositive Clauses 1. Most social scientists today dismiss the significance of feral children, taking the position that children cannot be raised by animals and that children found in the woods were reared by their parents as infants but abandoned, probably because they were retarded.  2. The Harlows drew the significant conclusion that infant-mother bonding is due not to feeding but rather to what they termed "intimate physical contact."

But be careful to analyze the sentences that you find rather than assuming that a word like idea will always involve an appositive clause.  Compare these two sentences--which is the relative clause?  which the appositive clause?
 

1. At birth, we have no idea that we are separate beings, no idea even that we are he or she.  2. We can purposely expose ourselves to groups and ideas that we prefer.

Let's try one more: is the clause in this sentence a relative clause or an appositive clause?
 

Mead also drew a conclusion that some find startling - that not only the self but also the human mind is a social product.

7. That is That is found in phrases such as that is, which is used primarily in academic writing.  Even in that context, that is is must less common than other phrases such as so however, thus, and therefore. 
8. So...That... Comparisions can be structured using so + adjective + that :  He was so tired that he couldn't do his sociology homework.  She was so hungry that she ate a snack before dinner. 
9. And.... Adverbial subordinators: given that, granted that, provided that, seeing that, supposing that, now that, in that....
For example: Given that the portfolio is a graduation requirement, you cannot graduate until you have completed yours and it has been approved by your adviser

Ing- Functions

-ing is a suffix used to make one of the inflected forms of English verbs. This verb form is used as a present participle, as a gerund, and sometimes as an independent noun or adjective. The -ing form of a verb has both noun uses and adjectival (or adverbial) uses. In either case it may function as a non-finite verb (for example, by taking direct objects), or as a pure noun or adjective. When it behaves as a non-finite verb, it is called a gerund in the noun case, and a present participle in the adjectival or adverbial case. Uses as pure noun or adjective may be called deverbal uses.
                                         

                                                                     ING- FUNCTIONS

nouns	adjectives
pronouns	verbs
determiners	adverbs
prepositions	conjunctions

Examples:

The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb.

• Smoking is forbidden.
• I have a long working day.
• I don't like dancing.

When it is used like a noun it may or may not have an article before it.

• Marketing is a very inexact science.
• The marketing of the product will continue for a few months yet.

It can also be part of a 'noun phrase'.

• Speaking to an audience is always stressful.
• Swimming after work is very relaxing.

In formal English, we would use a possessive with the –ing form. In informal English, many people do not.

• I'm angry about his missing the meeting.
• Do you mind my coming?

As an adjective, the –ing form can be used before a noun.

• I was met by a welcoming party at the airport.
• Let's go to the meeting room.

The –ing form is used after prepositions.

• Before leaving, you need to speak to Sarah.
• After discussing it with her, I've changed my mind.
• Instead of feeling sorry for yourself, do some work for charity.

Notice that when 'to' is used as a preposition, it is followed by the –ing form.

• I don't object to working this Sunday.
• I'm looking forward to seeing him again.
• I'm used to working long hours.

There are many verb + -ing combinations. Here are some common ones:

• I admit telling her.
• I appreciate having the raise.
• I avoid speaking to him.
• I consider blowing your nose in public to be wrong.
• I delayed coming until the last possible moment.
• He denied telling her.
• I detest going to parties.
• I enjoy dancing.
• I feel like having a party.
• I've finished writing the report.
• I've given up going to the gym.
• I can't help thinking about it.
• I can't imagine ever leaving this company.
• I don't mind doing that.
• He put off talking to her as long as he could.
• I can't stand drinking beer.

Some verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or –ing form but with different meanings. Here are some common ones:

• I stopped smoking last month. (I no longer smoke.)
• I stopped to smoke a cigarette. (I stopped what I was doing and had a cigarette.)
• I remember telling him. (A memory of the past.)
• I must remember to tell him. (Something to remember for the future.)
• I'm interested in finding out more details. (Interested about the future.)
• I was interested to read his report. (Interested in the past.)

Some verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or –ing form but with the same meaning. Here are some common ones:

• I love to go shopping.
• I love going shopping.
• I'm afraid to fly.
• I'm afraid of flying.
• I started to learn English 5 years ago.
• I started learning English 5 years ago.

Discourse

A discourse organizer is what motivates the author to write about the text. It will depend upon the hierarchy of the ideas or pieces of information presented by the author.
For some authors, the discourse organizer constitutes the point of departure to search for the author`s implicit intention.

Control argument/theme

To construct a theme, you need to use some strategies argument as:

• Identify the communicative function of the text 
• Infer the discourse organizer
• Decide the general specific argument of the whole text from the specific argumenr of the whole text from the specific arguments of every paragraph.

Specific arguments/strategies

• Argument: It has to do with the author`s intention in a paragraph, it is reason and it is beyond what is merely and explicitly said.
• Strategies:
• Elimination: It is a technique to get a specific argument in a paragraph. By applying this technique, you can omit unnecessary and irrelevant information to get to the essence of a text.
• Substituion: It is a technique that allows you to to paraphrase and reformulate a specific argument suggested in every paragraph. This technique as well as the elimination one is also used when getting the overall argument or central theme.
• Key words: It is a technique used to concentrate on the most important information in a text, given through the form of content words or linguistic words that convey meaning. By adopting this technique, you necessarily obtain the specific argument and it also contribuites to get central theme or argument of the whole text

Complex verb tenses: 3 or more verbs together,modals.

Compound verbs are formed by putting two or three verbs together, one or two helping, or auxiliary verbs with a participle, or main verb. They are similar to compound nouns, which put two nouns together, such as "raincoat," except that with compound verbs, the verbs are written as separate words. Compound verbs are commonly used in English, in such constructions as future, continuous and perfect tenses, the passive voice and with modal verbs.

 Modal verbs can only be used in compound verbs.Examples of modals are can, could, will, should, could and would. They can be used to make requests, or talk about possibility, as with "can"; to talk about possibility or add politeness, as with "could"; or give advice, as is the case with "should." Not all modal verbs can be used in all tenses. They are used together with participles, as in "Jason could have gone,"

 

 
The English lexicon contains a few true compound verbs, such as stirfry, kickstart and forcefeed. These are not serial verbs, though, as with many compounds, they may be spelled as two words. Rather the first verb expresses a manner with which the action expressed by the second verb is carried out. The second verb is the only one which may express tense.  English also expresses fine distinctions as to the beginning, duration, completion, or repetition, of an action using auxiliaries or other lexical mechanisms. Examples here include was starting, had lived, had been seen, etc.